Cumulative Health Vulnerabilities Among Adolescents by Age and Neighborhood Opportunity.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Early detection of health vulnerabilities in adolescents is integral to promoting healthy behaviors into adulthood. Our objective was to quantify the prevalence of health vulnerabilities among adolescents and examine differences by age and neighborhood opportunity. METHODS: In a cross-sectional analysis of electronic health record data for adolescents aged 13 to 18 years with preventive visits in a large pediatric primary care network between September 2021 and September 2022, we examined 5 health vulnerabilities: Tobacco use, substance use, firearm access, condomless intercourse, and depressive symptoms. Health vulnerabilities were assessed via self-reported adolescent health questionnaire and the validated Patient Health Questionnaire-Modified. Prevalence of health vulnerabilities were calculated alone and in combination, and compared by age and by quintile of neighborhood Child Opportunity Index (COI) score. Multivariable logistic regression estimated associations of neighborhood COI with reporting ≥2 health vulnerabilities. RESULTS: Among 40 197 adolescents (57.7% aged 13-15 years, 66.3% living in "high"/"very high" COI neighborhoods), 29.7% reported at least 1 health vulnerability and 7.9% reported ≥2 vulnerabilities. Cumulative health vulnerabilities were more prevalent among older adolescents and adolescents from lower opportunity neighborhoods. In adjusted models, lower COI was associated with 65% higher odds of having ≥2 vulnerabilities (odds ratio 1.65, 95% confidence interval 1.43-1.91) compared with adolescents from the highest COI quintile. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the relationship between health vulnerabilities and neighborhood opportunities among adolescents may allow pediatric primary care providers and health systems to offer more tailored community support services and transdiagnostic specialized care navigation to address the health needs of teens with multiple vulnerabilities.

Measures of Neighborhood Opportunity and Adherence to Recommended Pediatric Primary Care.

Importance: Neighborhood conditions are known to broadly impact child health. Research to date has not examined the association of the Childhood Opportunity Index (COI), a multidimensional indicator of neighborhood environment conditions, specifically with pediatric primary care outcomes. Objective: To determine the association of neighborhood opportunity measured by the COI with health metrics commonly captured clinically in pediatric primary care, reflecting both access to preventive care and child well-being. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional observational study used electronic health record data from a large pediatric primary care network in the northeastern US. Participants included patients aged 0 to 19 years who were active in the primary care network between November 2020 and November 2022. Data were analyzed in December 2022. Exposure: Census tract-level COI overall score (in quintiles). Main Outcomes and Measures: Outcomes included up-to-date preventive care and immunization status and presence of obesity, adolescent depression and suicidality, and maternal depression and suicidality. Multivariable mixed-effects logistic regressions estimated associations of these outcomes with COI quintiles, adjusted for age, sex, race and ethnicity, and insurance type. Results: Among 338 277 patients (mean [SD] age, 9.8 [5.9] years; 165 223 female [48.8%]; 158 054 [46.7%] non-Hispanic White, 209 482 [61.9%] commercially insured), 81 739 (24.2%) and 130 361 (38.5%) lived in neighborhoods of very low and very high COI, respectively. Living in very high COI neighborhoods (vs very low COI) was associated with higher odds of being up-to-date on preventive visits (odds ratio [OR], 1.40; 95% CI, 1.32-1.48) and immunizations (OR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.58-2.00), and with lower odds of obesity (OR, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.52-0.58), adolescent depression (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.72-0.84) and suicidality (OR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.73-0.85), and maternal depression (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.72-0.86) and suicidality (OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.61-0.83). Conclusions and Relevance: This cross-sectional study of electronic health record data found that neighborhood opportunity was associated with multiple pediatric primary care outcomes. Understanding these associations can help health systems identify neighborhoods that need additional support and advocate for and develop partnerships with community groups to promote child well-being. The findings underscore the importance of improving access to preventive care in low COI communities.

The neighborhood environment and sleep health in adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Neighborhood-level factors, including education, health and environment, and socioeconomic exposures, are important contextual determinants of child health. We explored whether these factors, measured via the Childhood Opportunity Index 2.0, were associated with sleep health in adolescents. METHODS: Actigraphy was used to assess sleep duration, timing, and efficiency among 110 adolescents in eighth (13.9 (0.4)) and ninth (14.9 (0.4)) grade. Home addresses were geocoded and linked to Childhood Opportunity Index 2.0 scores (including 3 subtype scores and the 29 individual factor Z-scores). Mixed-effects linear regression was used to determine associations between the Childhood Opportunity Index 2.0 scores and the sleep outcomes, adjusting for sex, race, parent education, household income, school grade and weeknight status. Interactions were also tested by school grade, weeknight status, sex, and race. RESULTS: No associations were observed between overall or subtype scores with sleep outcomes in adolescents. However, we detected associations between select individual Childhood Opportunity Index 2.0 Z-scores, spanning health & environment and education domains, and sleep outcomes. For example, greater fine particulate matter was associated with later timing of sleep onset and offset; ozone concentration was associated with earlier sleep onset and offset; greater exposure to extreme temperature was associated with later sleep onset and offset and increased odds of optimal sleep efficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Specific neighborhood factors indexed by the Childhood Opportunity Index 2.0 were associated with sleep health among adolescents. In particular, neighborhood air quality measures were associated with sleep timing and efficiency, warranting further investigation.

Trends and Persistent Disparities in Child Obesity During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with increases in pediatric obesity and widening pre-existing disparities. To better understand the pandemic's long-term impacts, we evaluated trends in obesity across different demographic groups during the pandemic through December 2022. Using a retrospective cohort design, we analyzed electronic health record data from a large pediatric primary care network. Logistic regression models fit using generalized estimating equations estimated odds ratios (ORs) for changes in the level and trajectory of obesity across 2-year month-matched periods: prepandemic (June 2017 to December 2019) and pandemic (June 2020 to December 2022). Among a cohort of 153,667 patients with visits in each period, there was a significant increase in the level of obesity at the pandemic onset [OR: 1.229, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.211-1.247] followed by a significant decrease in the trend for obesity (OR: 0.993, 95% CI: 0.992-0.993). By December 2022, obesity had returned to prepandemic levels. However, persistent sociodemographic disparities remain.

Feasibility and acceptability of mobile methods to assess home and neighborhood environments related to adolescent sleep.

OBJECTIVE: A growing evidence base suggests home and neighborhood environmental exposures may influence adolescent sleep, but few studies have assessed these relationships using methods that account for time-varying, location-specific exposures, or multiple neighborhood contexts. This study aimed to assess the feasibility and acceptability of using smartphone global positioning system (GPS) tracking and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess time-varying home and neighborhood environmental exposures hypothesized to be associated with adolescent sleep. METHODS: Adolescents aged 15-17 years in Philadelphia completed 7 days of continuous smartphone GPS tracking, which was used to identify daily levels of exposure to geocoded neighborhood factors (eg, crime, green space). Four daily EMA surveys assessed home sleep environment (eg, noise, light), stress, health behaviors, and neighborhood perceptions. Feasibility and acceptability of GPS tracking and EMA were assessed, and distributions of daily environmental exposures were examined. RESULTS: Among 25 teens (mean age 16, 56% male), there was a high level of GPS location data captured (median daily follow-up: 24 hours). Seventy-eight percent of EMA surveys were completed overall. Most participants (96%) reported no privacy concerns related to GPS tracking and minimal burden from EMA surveys. Exposures differed between participants' home neighborhoods and locations visited outside the home neighborhood (eg, higher crime away from home). Sleep environment disruptions were present on 29% of nights (most common: uncomfortable temperature) and were reported by 52% of adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate the feasibility and acceptability of mobile methods for assessing time-varying home and neighborhood exposures relevant to adolescent sleep for up to 1 week.

Trends in Positive Depression and Suicide Risk Screens in Pediatric Primary Care During COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: Adolescent mental health concerns increased during COVID-19, but it is unknown whether early increases in depression and suicide risk have been sustained. We examined changes in positive screens for depression and suicide risk in a large pediatric primary care network through May 2022. METHODS: Using an observational repeated cross-sectional design, we examined changes in depression and suicide risk during the pandemic using electronic health record data from adolescents. Segmented logistic regression was used to estimate risk differences (RD) for positive depression and suicide risk screens during the early pandemic (June 2020-May 2021) and late pandemic (June 2021-May 2022) relative to before the pandemic (March 2018-February 2020). Models adjusted for seasonality and standard errors accounted for clustering by practice. RESULTS: Among 222,668 visits for 115,627 adolescents (mean age 15.7, 50% female), the risk of positive depression and suicide risk screens increased during the early pandemic period relative to the prepandemic period (RD, 3.8%; 95% CI, 2.9, 4.8; RD, 2.8%; 95% CI, 1.7, 3.8). Risk of depression returned to baseline during the late pandemic period, while suicide risk remained slightly elevated (RD, 0.7%; 95% CI, -0.4, 1.7; RD, 1.8%; 95% CI, 0.9%, 2.7%). CONCLUSIONS: During the early months of the pandemic, there was an increase in positive depression and suicide risk screens, which later returned to prepandemic levels for depression but not suicide risk. Results suggest that pediatricians should continue to prioritize screening adolescents for depressive symptoms and suicide risk and connect them to treatment.

Neighborhood Greenspace and Changes in Pediatric Obesity During COVID-19.

INTRODUCTION: Pediatric obesity rates increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examined the associations of neighborhood greenspace with changes in pediatric obesity during the pandemic. METHODS: Electronic health record data from a large pediatric primary care network were extracted to create a retrospective cohort of patients aged 2-17 years with a visit in each of 2 periods: June 2019-December 2019 (before pandemic) and June 2020-December 2020 (pandemic). Multivariable longitudinal generalized estimating equations Poisson regression estimated the associations of census tract‒level Normalized Difference Vegetation Index with (1) changes in obesity risk during the pandemic and (2) risk of new-onset obesity among children who were not obese prepandemic. Analyses were conducted between November 2021 and May 2022. RESULTS: Among 81,418 children (mean age: 8.4 years, 18% Black), the percentage of children who were obese increased by 3.2% during the pandemic. Children in Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Quartiles 2-4 had smaller increases in obesity risk during the pandemic than those in Quartile 1 (risk ratio=0.96, 95% CI=0.93, 0.99; Quartile 3 risk ratio=0.95; 95% CI=0.91, 0.98; Quartile 4 risk ratio=0.95, 95% CI=0.92, 0.99). Among the subset who were not obese before the pandemic, children in Normalized Difference Vegetation Index quartiles 3-4 had a lower risk of new-onset obesity during the pandemic (Quartile 3 risk ratio=0.82, 95% CI=0.71, 0.95; Quartile 4 risk ratio=0.73, 95% CI=0.62, 0.85). Higher Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was associated with smaller increases in obesity risk and lower risk of new-onset obesity among children in urban and suburban areas, but results were in the opposite direction for children in rural areas. CONCLUSIONS: Children living in greener neighborhoods experienced smaller increases in obesity during the pandemic than children in less green neighborhoods, although findings differed by urbanicity.

Associations Between Food Insecurity and Neighborhood Safety, Social Cohesion, Social Control, and Crime Among Mothers of Preschool-Aged Children.

Food insecurity has myriad associations with poor health, and low-income communities have higher than average prevalence of food insecurity. Living in a supportive neighborhood social environment may protect against food insecurity, while adverse neighborhood social conditions, such as crime, may increase the likelihood of food insecurity. To examine associations between food insecurity and neighborhood social factors among families with young children, we administered a cross-sectional survey to 300 mothers and female caregivers of Medicaid-enrolled two- to four-year-old children in Philadelphia. We used multivariable regression to examine associations between food insecurity and perceived neighborhood safety, social cohesion, informal social control, and crime, adjusted for demographics, socioeconomic status, and neighborhood characteristics. Lower food insecurity prevalence was associated with higher perceived neighborhood safety and social cohesion, and lower police-recorded violent crime rates. Future work to increase food security among low-income households may benefit from targeting the neighborhood social environment.

Association of Neighborhood Social Context and Perceived Stress Among Mothers of Young Children.

BACKGROUND: Chronic parental stress may negatively impact health among both parents and children. Adverse neighborhood social conditions like crime may increase stress while a supportive neighborhood may buffer stress and promote well-being. Our objective was to examine associations between neighborhood social factors and stress among mothers of young children. METHODS: We surveyed 300 mothers/female caregivers of Medicaid-enrolled 2 to 4-year-old children in Philadelphia. Maternal stress was measured via the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (range 0-40). Mothers' perceived neighborhood safety and collective efficacy were assessed using validated scales. Addresses were geocoded to link census tract-level violent crime rates. We used multivariable linear regression to examine associations of neighborhood safety, collective efficacy, and crime with maternal stress, adjusted for demographics, household socioeconomic status, and neighborhood poverty. RESULTS: Among mothers (mean age 31, 60% Black/African American), higher perceived neighborhood safety and collective efficacy were associated with lower stress scores after adjustment for covariates. Each 1-point increase (on a 5-point scale) in perceived neighborhood safety was associated with a 2.30-point decrease in maternal stress (95% CI: -3.07, -1.53). Similarly, each 1-point increase in perceived collective efficacy was associated with a 3.08-point decrease in maternal stress (95% CI: -4.13, -2.02). Police-recorded violent crime rates were not associated with maternal stress. CONCLUSION: Mothers of young children who perceive their neighborhood social environment more favorably report less stress compared to those who feel their neighborhood environment is less safe and cohesive. Future work is warranted to investigate whether interventions that increase perceived neighborhood safety and collective efficacy reduce stress.

Exposure to Neighborhood-Level Racial Residential Segregation in Young Adulthood to Midlife and Incident Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Black Adults: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study.

BACKGROUND: Neighborhood-level racial residential segregation has been linked to several cardiovascular disease risk factors and outcomes in Black adults, but its impact on subclinical atherosclerosis remains unknown. In addition, although the impact of segregation on health may vary over the life course, most studies have examined segregation exposure at a single point in time. This article takes a life course approach by examining associations of exposure to neighborhood-level racial residential segregation in young adulthood and patterns of exposure from young adulthood to midlife with coronary artery calcification (CAC) incidence. METHODS: We used data on 1125 Black CARDIA study (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults) participants free of CAC. Residential segregation was assessed using the Gi* statistic and measured when participants were young adults (18-30 years old, in 1985-1986) and as the pattern from young adulthood to midlife (15 years later). Poisson regression with generalized estimating equations models was used to measure CAC incidence. RESULTS: We found participants living in low segregation neighborhoods in young adulthood had 0.52 (rate ratio [95% CI: 0.28-0.98]) times lower risk of developing CAC compared with high segregation after adjusting for young adulthood sociodemographic characteristics and neighborhood poverty. Associations were attenuated and no longer statistically significant with adjustment for midlife CAC risk factors hypothesized to be on the causal pathway (rate ratio: 0.56 [95% CI: 0.29-1.09]). Findings for patterns of segregation over time suggest participants living in low segregation neighborhoods in young adulthood were less likely to develop CAC than those who started out in medium/high segregation neighborhoods, regardless of where they lived in midlife (rate ratio for increase from low to medium/high: 0.42 [95% CI: 0.19-0.95]; rate ratio for continuously low versus continuously medium/high segregation neighborhoods: 0.75 [95% CI: 0.31-1.83]). CONCLUSIONS: We found that participants living in more segregated neighborhoods in young adulthood were more likely to develop CAC due at least in part to differences in CAC risk factor burden accumulated over follow-up.

Associations of Neighborhood Safety and Collective Efficacy with Dietary Intake among Preschool-Aged Children and Mothers.

Background: Positive neighborhood environments may promote healthier behaviors, yet few studies have examined associations between neighborhood social environment and diet. We examined associations of neighborhood perceived safety, collective efficacy, and violent crime with dietary intake among preschool-aged children and their mothers. Methods: We administered a cross-sectional survey to 300 mothers/female caregivers of Medicaid-enrolled 2- to 4-year-old children in Philadelphia. Mothers reported their own and their child's dietary intake using the validated Dietary Screener Questionnaire. Mixed-effects linear regression models assessed associations of perceived neighborhood safety, collective efficacy, and census tract-level violent crime with parent and child dietary intake, adjusted for individual, family, and neighborhood covariates. Results: Among mothers, higher perceived neighborhood safety and collective efficacy were associated with higher daily intake of fruits/vegetables (ß = 0.35 cups, 95% CI: 0.12-0.58 and ß = 0.30 cups, 95% CI: 0.08-0.52, comparing the highest with lowest tertile). Higher neighborhood-perceived safety was also associated with higher whole-grain intake among mothers (ß = 0.14 ounces, 95% CI: 0.02-0.27) and children (ß = 0.07 ounces, 95% CI: 0.01-0.13, comparing the highest with lowest tertile). Neighborhood social exposures were not associated with intake of added sugars or sugar-sweetened beverages for mothers or children, nor were lower levels of violent crime associated with any outcome. Conclusions: More favorable perceptions of neighborhood safety and collective efficacy were associated with a slightly higher consumption of some healthy foods among mothers and their young children. Future prospective research is needed to confirm these findings, explore potential mechanisms, and determine whether intervening on the social environment improves diet.

COVID-19 and Adolescent Depression and Suicide Risk Screening Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Mental health concerns increased during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, but previous studies have not examined depression screening in pediatric primary care. We aimed to describe changes in screening, depressive symptoms, and suicide risk among adolescents during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. METHODS: In a repeat cross-sectional analysis of electronic health record data from a large pediatric primary care network, we compared the percentage of primary care visits where adolescents aged 12 to 21 were screened for depression, screened positive for depressive symptoms, or screened positive for suicide risk between June and December 2019 (prepandemic) and June and December 2020 (pandemic). Changes were examined overall, by month, and by sex, race and ethnicity, insurance type, and income. Modified Poisson regression was used to calculate prevalence ratios (PRs) for the prepandemic to pandemic changes. RESULTS: Depression screening at primary care visits declined from 77.6% to 75.8% during the pandemic period (PR: 0.98, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.90-1.06). The percentage of adolescents screening positive for depressive symptoms increased from 5.0% to 6.2% (PR: 1.24, 95% CI: 1.15-1.34), with greater increases among female, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic white adolescents. Positive suicide risk screens increased from 6.1% to 7.1% (PR: 1.16, 95% CI: 1.08-1.26), with a 34% relative increase in reporting recent suicidal thoughts among female adolescents (PR: 1.34, 95% CI: 1.18-1.52). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that depression and suicide concerns have increased during the pandemic, especially among female adolescents. Results underscore the importance of consistent depression and suicidality screening.

Neighborhood environments and sleep among children and adolescents: A systematic review.

Understanding salient environmental determinants of pediatric sleep is essential for informing interventions and public health initiatives. Emerging evidence suggests that the neighborhood environment can impact pediatric sleep, but this evidence has not yet been systematically reviewed. We conducted a systematic review of the scientific literature on associations between neighborhood environments and sleep in young children (0-5 y), school-aged children (6-12 y) and adolescents (13-18 y). We reviewed 85 articles published between 2003 and 2020. The most commonly examined neighborhood exposure was low socioeconomic status (40 studies), which was associated with sleep outcomes in 58% of studies (primarily shorter sleep duration, later sleep timing, or obstructive sleep apnea). Evidence was stronger for neighborhood safety/crime/violence (21 studies), with 86% of studies reporting associations with sleep outcomes (primarily self- or caregiver-reported sleep problems). Fewer studies examined associations of neighborhood physical environment exposures, including noise (15 studies), the built environment (seven studies), and air pollution (six studies). Limitations of the current body of evidence include 1) limited examination of neighborhood exposures other than socioeconomic status or safety, 2) use of primarily cross-sectional observational study designs, 3) lack of objective sleep outcome assessment, and 4) limits of current exposure assessment methods.

Associations of the residential built environment with adolescent sleep outcomes.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Over 75% of US high school students obtain insufficient sleep, placing them at risk for adverse health outcomes. Identification of modifiable determinants of adolescent sleep is needed to inform prevention strategies, yet little is known about the influence of the built environment on adolescent sleep. METHODS: In this prospective study, actigraphy was used to assess sleep outcomes among 110 adolescents for 14 days each in eighth and ninth grades: duration (hours/night), onset and offset, and sleeping ≥8 hours. Home addresses were linked to built environment exposures: sound levels, tree canopy cover, street density, intersection density, population density, and housing density. Mixed-effects regression estimated associations of built environment measures with sleep outcomes, adjusting for sex, race, parent education, household income, household size, grade, weeknight status, and neighborhood poverty. RESULTS: A 1-standard deviation (SD) increase in neighborhood sound was associated with 16 minutes later sleep onset (ß = 0.28; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.06, 0.49) and 25% lower odds of sleeping for ≥8 hours (odds ratio (OR) = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.59, 0.96). A 1-SD increase in neighborhood tree canopy was associated with 18 minutes earlier sleep onset (ß = -0.31, 95% CI: -0.49, -0.13) and 10 minutes earlier sleep offset (ß= -0.17, 95% CI: -0.28, -0.05). No associations were observed for density-based exposures. CONCLUSIONS: Higher neighborhood sound level was associated with lower odds of sufficient sleep, while higher tree canopy cover was associated with more favorable sleep timing. Neighborhood sound levels and tree canopy cover are potential targets for policies and interventions to support healthier sleep among adolescents.

Racial residential segregation, racial discrimination, and diabetes: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study.

Although racial residential segregation and interpersonal racial discrimination are associated with cardiovascular disease, few studies have examined their link with diabetes risk or management. We used longitudinal data from 2,175 black participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study to examine associations of racial residential segregation (Gi* statistic) and experiences of racial discrimination with diabetes incidence and management. Multivariable Cox models estimated associations for incident diabetes and GEE logistic regression estimated associations with diabetes management (meeting targets for HbA1c, systolic blood pressure, and LDL cholesterol). Neither segregation nor discrimination were associated with diabetes incidence or management.

Clustering of unhealthy behaviors in a nationally representative sample of U.S. children and adolescents.

Poor diet, low physical activity, sedentary behavior and smoking are modifiable risk factors for chronic diseases that often develop early in life. An improved understanding of how unhealthy behaviors co-occur within individual children across childhood and adolescence could inform the development of more effective prevention approaches. Using data from the 2011-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, we calculated weighted prevalence of five unhealthy behaviors - excessive screen time, poor diet quality, low physical activity, fast food consumption, and smoking (adolescents only) - alone and in combination among U.S. children and adolescents, stratified by age group (2-5, 6-11, 12-15, and 16-19 years). Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate associations between health behavior clustering (≥2 unhealthy behaviors) and sociodemographic characteristics by age group. Among 7714 children and adolescents, the most prevalent behaviors were excessive screen time and poor diet quality. Unhealthy behavior clustering increased significantly with age (from 29.0% for ages 2-5 to 73.9% for ages 16-19 years, p-trend: <0.0001). The most common health behavior combination was excessive screen time and poor diet (from 14.4% prevalence for ages 2-5 to 45.3% for ages 16-19 years). Smoking prevalence was low, but 97% of smokers had ≥1 other unhealthy behavior. Unhealthy behavior clustering was significantly more prevalent among black than white children (ages 2-5 and 6-11) and less prevalent among Hispanic older adolescents (age 16-19). Associations with household characteristics varied by age group. These results provide a population-level understanding of the extent to which unhealthy behaviors co-occur in U.S. children and adolescents.

Neighborhood Physical Disorder and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes among Women in Chicago: a Cross-Sectional Analysis of Electronic Health Record Data.

Adverse pregnancy outcomes increase infants' risk for mortality and future health problems. Neighborhood physical disorder may contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes by increasing maternal chronic stress. Google Street View technology presents a novel method for assessing neighborhood physical disorder but has not been previously examined in the context of birth outcomes. In this cross-sectional study, trained raters used Google's Street View imagery to virtually audit a randomly sampled block within each Chicago census tract (n = 809) for nine indicators of physical disorder. We used an item-response theory model and spatial interpolation to calculate tract-level neighborhood physical disorder scores across Chicago. We linked these data with geocoded electronic health record data from a large, academic women's hospital in Chicago (2015-2017, n = 14,309 births). We used three-level hierarchical Poisson regression to estimate prevalence ratios for the associations of neighborhood physical disorder with preterm birth (overall and spontaneous), small for gestational age (SGA), and hypertensive disorder of pregnancy (HDP). After adjustment for maternal sociodemographics, multiparity, and season of birth, living in a neighborhood with high physical disorder was associated with higher prevalence of PTB, SGA, and HDP (prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals 1.21 (1.06, 1.39) for PTB, 1.13 (1.01, 1.37) for SGA, and 1.23 (1.07, 1.42) for HDP). Adjustment for neighborhood poverty and maternal health conditions (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, asthma, substance use) attenuated associations. Results suggest that an adverse neighborhood physical environment may contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, future work is needed to disentangle the unique contribution of physical disorder from other characteristics of disadvantaged neighborhoods.

Neighbourhood racial/ethnic residential segregation and cardiometabolic risk: the multiethnic study of atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Racial residential segregation has been linked to adverse health outcomes, but associations may operate through multiple pathways. Prior studies have not examined associations of neighbourhood-level racial segregation with an index of cardiometabolic risk (CMR) and whether associations differ by race/ethnicity. METHODS: We used data from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis to estimate cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of baseline neighbourhood-level racial residential segregation with a composite measure of CMR. Participants included 5015 non-Hispanic black, non-Hispanic white and Hispanic participants aged 45-84 years old over 12 years of follow-up (2000-2012). We used linear mixed effects models to estimate race-stratified associations of own-group segregation with CMR at baseline and with the rate of annual change in CMR. Models were adjusted for sociodemographics, medication use and individual-level and neighbourhood-level socioeconomic status (SES). RESULTS: In models adjusted for sociodemographics and medication use, high baseline segregation was associated with higher baseline CMR among blacks and Hispanics but lower baseline CMR among whites. Individual and neighbourhood-level SES fully explained observed associations between segregation and CMR for whites and Hispanics. However, associations of segregation with CMR among blacks remained (high vs low segregation: mean difference 0.17 SD units, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.32; medium vs low segregation: mean difference 0.18 SD units, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.33). Baseline segregation was not associated with change in CMR index scores over time. CONCLUSION: Associations of own-group racial residential segregation with CMR varied by race/ethnicity. After accounting for SES, living in a more segregated neighbourhood was associated with greater risk among black participants only.

Longitudinal Associations of Cigarette Prices With Smoking Cessation: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have used longitudinal cohort data to examine associations of cigarette prices with smoking cessation or whether price sensitivity varies by income or education. This study examines these associations in a multicenter US cohort and explores whether associations vary by education and income. METHODS: Longitudinal data from baseline daily cigarette smokers aged 18-30 years in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study were linked to inflation-adjusted cigarette carton prices from the Council for Community and Economic Research Cost of Living Index based on residential address at baseline and in years 7, 10, and 15 (1985-2001). Multivariable Cox models estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of first (any) smoking cessation and sustained smoking cessation (no relapse) associated with each $1 increase in time-dependent cigarette price over 15 years of follow-up. Models were adjusted for sociodemographic, health-related, and policy covariates. We assessed effect modification by education and household income. RESULTS: Among 1489 participants, a $1.00 higher cigarette carton price was associated with a 16% higher likelihood of first smoking cessation (HR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.11 to 1.21) and an 8% higher likelihood of sustained smoking cessation (HR = 1.08, 95% CI = 1.02 to 1.14). Associations were strongest among participants with lower income for first cessation, and among those with higher income for sustained cessation. Associations were strongest for participants with less than a high school degree for both outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest higher cigarette prices promote smoking cessation among young to middle-aged adults, and that price sensitivity may differ by socioeconomic status. IMPLICATIONS: Few studies have examined longitudinal associations of cigarette prices with smoking cessation, and findings are mixed on whether price sensitivity varies by education or income. In a cohort of US adult daily smokers, cigarette prices were associated with greater likelihood of both a first cessation and sustained cessation. Price associations with first cessation were stronger among low-income smokers, but associations with sustained cessation were stronger among high-income smokers. Results suggest that although higher cigarette prices may promote short-term smoking cessation among smokers at all income levels, additional supports may be needed to facilitate sustained smoking cessation among low-income smokers.